The concept of professional development in the information professions in Britain : a comparison of the use of professional development in the Library Association and the British Computer Society.

Sylva Šimsová

1 What is a profession

Fifty years ago when I decided to become a librarian my motivation was similar to that of many librarians in the past: put simply, I liked the written word and I liked sharing the ideas it conveyed with other people.

In 1952 Ernest A.Savage defined librarianship as follows:
"Librarianship is selecting, buying, storing, and making books known in catalogues, in grouping. and in display , by men and women who, teamed to make a library an efficient whole, in their several capacities (a) understand business management (b) know the key-books on a cyclopaedia of subjects (c) have the art and love the practice of reading, and (d) as critics select books from their knowledge of readers and with their gift of being host to them." [1]

The two keypoints in this definition are "love of reading" and "the gift of being host to readers".

My idea of librarianship as a profession was related to the teamwork I was experiencing in my daily life. In those days most librarians started with a "hands on" experience while studying part-time. Savage in his definition says that "librarianship is free teamwork."

I was not worried by the lack of recognition of librarianship as a profession, though I was aware of my comparatively low social status. At parties, whenever I admitted to what my job was, the usual reaction was something like "Oh, you poor thing!"

In the sociological literature of the 1960s librarianship was excluded from the professions or, at the most, relegated to the "semi-professions". William J. Goode in Etzioni's study of the semi-professions says: "Librarians and social workers appear to come from somewhat higher backgrounds than teachers or nurses". [2] In the eyes of the sociologists of that period librarians had class, but librarianship was not considered to be a profession.

What are the characteristics of a profession?. G. Millerson compared 21 definitions of a profession and listed the 14 traits mentioned in them. [3] The top six traits were: Skill based on theoretical knowledge; requires training and education; competence tested; organised; adheres to a professional code of conduct; altruistic service.

His definition of a profession was: "a type of higher-grade, non-manual occupation, with both subjectively and objectively recognised occupational status, possessing a well-defined area of study or concern and providing a definite service, after advanced training and education." [4]

In recent years Norman Roberts [5] echoed this definition: "A professional role is defined by a combination of work demands and attitudes towards such work, and towards clients."

The attitude to clients, described by Savage as "being a host" or by Millerson as "altruistic service" has played an important part in our profession from the beginning. In 1876, for instance, Samuel Green gave a conference paper on "The Desirableness of establishing personal intercourse and relations between librarians and readers in popular libraries."

He advocated "A hearty reception by a sympathizing friend, and the recognition of some one at hand who will listen to enquiries, even although he may consider them unimportant, make it easy for such persons to ask questions, and put them at once on a home footing." [6]

At the same time he was aware of the librarian's status and professional distance from his client: "He runs little risk in placing readers on a footing of equality with himself. The superiority of his culture will always enable him to secure the respectful treatment which belongs to him, when confronted by impudence or conceit." [7]

The above illustrations suggest that librarians are not short on altruism which is one of the attributes necessary for membership of a profession.

Nor are they slow in organising themselves. According Millerson [8] the Library Association, established in 1877, was the fifth qualifying professional association established in England and Wales. It received its Royal Charter in 1898.

The rest of my paper is going to deal with professional education which is related to the first three of Millerson's professional traits.

2 The concept of professional development

In Britain, the Library Association held the first professional examinations for librarians in 1896. In 1904 correspondence courses were provided to help them with preparation for the exams and in 1919 the first school of librarianship was opened at University College London.

The correspondence courses, run first by the Library Association and later (from 1930) by the Association of Assistant Librarians, continued for many decades. I myself was at first a correspondence student (1952-6) and later on a tutor (1957-64). It was a form of distance learning which was used by students not only in Britain, but also in many countries overseas. In the early years the tutors included such eminent librarians as James Duff Brown, Berwick Sayers and Ernest Savage. During the Second World War courses were sent to three prisoners of war. [9]

By 1964 it was decided by the Library Association to require all students to attend full-time courses in order to increase the standards of professional education. New schools of librarianship were opened and tutors drafted in from among practising librarians. That is how I became a lecturer at the North-Western Polytechnic, later The Polytechnic of North London, and now The University of North London.

Work in these new schools of librarianship was very exciting. Our aim was to formulate the "theoretical knowledge" on which the skills of librarians were based. The intellectual climate in the profession was ready for it. The sixties brought an interest in library research and there were various informal groups, such as the Classification Research Group, which were grappling with theoretical problems.

Gradually the Library Association released its hold over the syllabus and examining, and the schools went ahead with developing their own ideas.

The assumption in all this was that the students who came to train at the school - some after their A levels, some on finishing their degree course, and some as mature students - would be equipped with knowledge that would stand them in good stead for the rest of their professional life.

Some twenty years later it became obvious that with the rapid technological development and the changes in the contents of the courses the students of the earlier years found themselves at a disadvantage. This practical need to supplement the knowledge rendered obsolete by circumstances, led to what we now would call "professional development".

Librarianship is not the only part of society affected by the matter of updating knowledge. The need for constant re-education exists in other fields. The much used concepts of "life-long learning" and "professional development" have become fashionable.

Among the early publications on professional development in librarianship and information work is a reader edited by Patricia Layzell Ward and published in 1980. [10] It is significant not only because it introduced the concept of professional development, but also because it mentioned in one breath the two professions of "the librarian and the information worker".

For a period of nearly 50 years of its existence the Library Association was the only professional body for librarians. In 1925 Aslib (now the Association for Information Management) was founded and in 1958 the Institute of Information Scientists.

A report by Wilfred Saunders in 1989 written at the request of Aslib and the Library Association brought the three organisations closer and contributed towards the trend for unification. [11] In it he concludes: "Collectively the Institute, Aslib and the Library Association represent an extremely powerful combination of expertise in information science, information management and librarianship in all its varied manifestations. There is a high degree of inter-dependence between all three of these areas and the potential for mutually beneficial interaction is great indeed. The case for this potential being achieved more effectively via a single unified organisation which includes the three organisations operating independently must be very strong indeed." [12]

Negotiations for the merger of the Institute of Information Scientists and the Library Association led to a proposal for a new organisation which was published last August [13].

The Library Association and the Institute of Information Scientists have a number of interests in common. They are primarily personal membership organisations. About 40% of Institute of Information Scientists members are also members of the Library Association.

It is hoped that the new organisation would be functional by 2002.

According to the proposals for the new organisation it will: "Promote and support the concept of continuing professional development for all its members by providing a framework for continuing professional development and a programme of opportunities." [14]

3 Methods used in professional development

Professional development requires a good foundation of general and professional education, received before the start of a professional career. Professional development builds on and updates previously acquired knowledge, skills and attitudes. [15]

The updating of knowledge and skills is not just a matter of satisfying intellectual curiosity and self-esteem. It also helps with the development of the right attitudes and with making the right decisions in day-to-day work.

From a long-term view, professional development can influence career progression. In a recent research, however, Jane Farmer suggests that continuing professional development activities are not the only factor in achieving career success and that it is more important to have well developed personal skills than knowledge about information and libraries.[16]

In her study of attitudes to continuing professional development Helen Clegg points out the wider context of lifelong learning: "This term takes the view that learning is never complete and continues throughout one's life. The term is therefore not restricted to purely professional knowledge, but includes the development of one's ability to make decisions and the wisdom acquired through day-to-day living." [17]

Responsibility for continuous professional development rests in the first place with the individual.

Employers of professional staff have a responsibility to ensure that the staff are able to pursue a career path which involves a growth of knowledge, experience and potential for development. In practice this means support by means of payment of course fees, allowance of time off for study, and recognition of the new knowledge and skills acquired. [18]

In the research by Farmer mentioned earlier,the respondents cited lack of management support, time off, and finance as problems standing in the way of their professional development. [19]

Employers who encourage staff development usually appreciate the importance of the expertise of their employees in ensuring the success of their business. [20]

Professional societies have the responsibility for the integrity and well being of their members and for maintaining the continuity of the profession. [21]

Later on I am going to show how two professional organisations, The Library Association and The British Computer Society, cope with this task.

The educational institutes at all levels have a basic responsibility for facilitating education and training, and libraries for providing support to anybody wishing to learn.

The role of government is to provide financial support or incentives of taxation relief for money spent on training. [22]

The methods used in continuous professional development range from formally organised ones (enroling in a course) to completely informal ones (self-directed activities).

The most formal one is the acquisition of higher or additional qualification. In the early 1980s I was one of the six lecturers in librarianship at our school who were given a chance to study for a diploma in computing. The policy was to create a nucleus of teachers who would provide a bridge between the two disciplines.

Attendance at courses without assessment does not guarantee that the student has understood or retained any of the knowledge imparted. However, the commitment of the mature professional could perhaps be relied on without the necessity for formal examinations.

In the UK this is the case with family doctors who are expected to attend a certain number of educational events each year if they are to get a salary bonus.

There is a long tradition of distance learning in the form of correspondence courses in the UK. In 1970 the Open University was created which combines the use of the media with correspondence teaching.

The increasing use of internet is bringing about the creation of network learning - i.e. courses organised on the internet, using internet interaction among students and between students and tutors. The interaction can be via e-mail (asynchronous) or a chat room (synchronous). The students are given their tasks on-line. They have access to a database of information for their reading. At the end of each section they fill in a test questionnaire.

Philippa Levy's report on an internet-based course for library and information staff in 1997-8 summarises the impressions of the first group of students. They found a wide variety of insights from their network learning. The group activities were sometimes frustrating to them, because of difficulties of getting feedback. They also found difficulties with adjusting to the different rhythms and time scale of asynchronous discussion, real-time online meetings and personal study. Yet, they acquired a sense of community and "group feeling" on the course, despite the lack of opportunities to meet face to face. [23]

Last year I enroled on a similar course about the use of the internet. I liked working at my own rather fast pace (completing a lesson each Sunday). Although I registered my e-mail address in the discussion group and sent in one compulsory contribution, I avoided getting involved with other students. Their pace was different from mine and it would have held me back. Judging by what Levy says I was not a "good" student, I did not share my learning with the others. I would imagine that many people who undertake some new education activity on top of their normal duties are like me.

One thing the correspondence courses used to teach was wide professional reading. Many librarians of my generation do not feel happy about their knowledge of a subject until they have read about it everything they can lay their hands on.

The students taking the networked course were expected to keep journals noting their reflections on their personal learning. [24]

Keeping notes about one's own professional development for a period of several years is a mature alternative to being examined. [25]

In addition to the intellectual development derived from courses there is also social development, such as professional involvement, attendance at conferences, and networking with other professionals. [26]

Different continuing professional development activities are important at different stages in the career, e.g. courses at the start, networking and giving papers at a later stage. [27]

4 Two examples of the control of professional development

4.1 The Library Association

The Royal Charter of the Library Association, which provides the legal framework under which the Association operates, requires the association to "maintain a register of Chartered Members, qualified to practise as professional librarians and information personnel".

Members of the Association wishing to qualify for Chartered status have to complete an accredited programme of professional education and then to demonstrated their skills through practice.

The Association has a link on the one hand with education through its accreditation procedures, and on the other with employers through the approved training programmes and supervision required for routes to Associateship.

The knowledge and skills acquired in studying for professional qualifications are estimated to be useful for only five years on average.

The Library Association responds to the need for continuous professional development by awarding the Associateship, and the Fellowship and by providing a programme of events which updating professional knowledge and skills.

The Associateship is awarded two or three years after graduating. [28]
During the registration period the candidate has to submit a proof of professional competence and commitment. There are two possible routes to Associateship: In Route A (12 months) the candidates have regular access to a supervisor for support and guidance. In the slower Route B (2 years) candidates may have informal access to advice from a variety of sources. However, there are no official arrangements for providing them with support and guidance.

In Route A an established Chartered Member of the Library Association acts as supervisor and undertakes to deliver the training. The training programmes submitted on a Training Programme Proforma are assessed by the Registration Board.

Whichever route is to be followed, the candidates are advised to keep a professional logbook in which they keep a record of significant elements that will help them to compile a Professional Development Report.

An Associate member may, after five years, apply for the award of Fellowship. The application has to demonstrate a higher level of professionalism both through personal professional practice and through the contribution made to the profession at large.

At various stages of their career members may face a "turning point" during which decisions have to be made about career changes. The Library Association provides a Turning Points Kit to help their members consider the various aspects of their professional situation.

Even if no career changes force them to look at their knowledge and skills, members are required by the Code of Professional Conduct (1989 paragraph 7.2c(1)0 to be "competent in professional activities" and to "keep abreast of developments in librarianship".

In the later stages of their career the Framework for Continuous Professional Development is available to all members. It is designed to facilitate a career-long commitment to high standards of professional practice. The use of the Framework for Continueous Professional Development is voluntary and does not lead to any formal qualification.

The Framework for Continuous Professional Development and the Turning Points Toolkit are available on a free disk from the Professional Qualifications Department.

The Framework for Continuous Professional Development enables the member to analyse his professional development needs, prepare a personal plan, record activities and evaluate progress.

The purpose of a formal framework is to enable members to keep pace with changes in their working environment and to ensure that their skills are fit to meet them.

The Framework for Continueous Professional Development considers the following:

The present job, in order to identify where action is needed to contribute to maintaining and improving present job performance.

Future roles, in order to identify areas where action is needed to meet anticipated changes.

Personal priorities, in order to consider how they may be developed over the next 3-5 years.

A statement of needs and aims for continuous professional development is compiled from the considerations listed under present job, future roles and personal priorities.

A list of actions necessary to achieve the aims is entered into an actions sheet. After discussing priorities with the employer and other advisers, a personal development plan can be formulated.

The Turning Points Toolkit is intended for graduates who have worked for a few years and are at some "Turning point" in their career, either as a result of individual choice or as the consequence of external influences. The purpose of the Turning Points Toolkit is to assist individuals in reviewing their experience, skills, personal strengths and weaknesses, personal preferences, working patterns, professional networks, learning and development needs.

The supervisors of the Associateship candidates form a volunteer network. The candidates are matched with experienced Chartered Librarians, sharing similar professional interests and activities.

The supervisors are expected to act as guides and mentors to the candidates, not only training them in their duties and the responsibilities of the posts and services in which they are employed, but also ensuring that they maintain a broad professional perspective.

Next month the Library Association is going to publish Guidelines on Mentoring for staff in library and information services. They are based on research carried out in 1996. [29]

Candidates for the Associateship are also given help in Association of Assistant Librarians seminars on the writing of the Professional Development Report.[30]

4.2 The British Computer Society

The British Computer Society was formed in 1979 and received its Royal Charter in 1984. [31] It is responsible for education and training, for public awareness, and above all for standards, quality and professionalism in computing. Its codes of practice and conduct set high standards of ethics and accountability.

The Society is also an Engineering Institution, with over 8000 members registered as Incorporated and Chartered Engineers.

British Computer Society professional membership grades are a widely acknowledged indication of professional competence.

The Society sets standards for education by its own examination which is recognised internationally, and by the accreditation it extends to university courses.

It offers support to young professionals through a range of Society events and publications, to employers by encouraging formal training and development schemes, and to experienced professionals through technical publications, a registered Continuing Professional Development scheme and a range of events put on by branches and specialist groups.

In recent years there has been a growing feeling within the society that some of the professionals employed in the IT community do not fit the "standard" British Computer Society formation route.The British Computer Society is now trying to do more to bring together the very wide interests it serves.

Sixteen years ago on joining the British Computer Society I was put at a disadvantage by not fitting the "standard" profile of a new member. In spite of having held a rather senior position in a related profession with a number of relevant publications to my credit, I was treated like any other new graduate instead of being given a more suitable higher grade.

The Professional Development Scheme (PDS) was introduced by the British Computer Society in 1989. It is a career development programme available to organisations for the training and development of their information science practitioners. A range of support services is provided, including performance standards, consultancy and training.

For organisations who prefer to have their own training programmes, British Computer Society offers accreditation, provided the training meets the requirements of both the British Computer Society and The Engineering Council.

Professional Development Scheme training and experience is acquired in 6 month or 1 year cycles. At the start of each cycle a CDP constructed by the participant and his/her assigned workplace supervisor. The participants are required to keep personal logbooks.

A fundamental component of Professional Development Scheme is the Industry Structure Model (ISM).

The Industry Structure Model is a detailed set of performance, training and development standards based on accepted best practice. It defines the roles people have and the skills they need to fill them competently. It is presented as a simple matrix of roles and levels of responsibility and technical expertise, each stating clearly the experience required at entry, the level of competence to be achieved, as well as training and development targets.

The advantage of Industry Structure Model is that it is based on actual practice - industry input over a period of 15 years - rather than abstract concepts. It provides the basis of career planning for individuals and of staff development for employers.

During the last year Industry Structure Model has formed the basis for the National Information System Skills Framework. This gathers labour market intelligence and helps to identify shortages of skills for the whole country.

The Industry Structure Model was first published in 1986, its latest release is ISM3. It forms the basis of the European Informatics Skills Structure (EISS).

Latest release ISM3 is in the form of a standard PC Windows software with full browse and print facilities.

The matrix of the latest release consists of over 200 roles, categorised by ten levels of responsibility and competence. The tasks performed within each role are clearly stated, along with the experience and skills required, and with training and development targets. Details are given of all relevant vocational and professional qualifications.

The British Computer Society is also an awarding body for the European Computer Driving Licence (ECDL).

The aim of ECDL is to assess standards of IT literacy among users. It is not intended for professionals.

It consists of 7 modules which are examined in one theoretical and six practical 45 minutes tests. The tests are open to anyone - regardless of age, sex, education, experience, nationality or residence.

Teaching courses leading to the passing of a certificate do not need accreditation.

The implementation of ECDL started 1996 and is now available in 17 countries.

The Syllabus was agreed by the Council for European Professional Informatics Societies (CEPIS) whose aim is to stimulate professionalism in its member societies.

5 Conclusion

There are some similarities in how the Library Association and the British Computer society oversee the professionalism of their members:

Both operate under a Royal Charter and maintain a register of chartered members and their grade of competence.

The members are expected to complete an accredited professional course followed by a period of supervised practice.

Both maintain a link with educational institutions on the one hand (through accreditation) and with employers on the other (by supervision of practice).

In addition to that, the British Computer Society offers its own examinations, while the Library Association gave up examining many years ago.

They both run a programme of events to keep their members up-to-date.

They each have a slightly different approach to the training programme. In the Professional Development Scheme training programme the British Computer Society exercises control over its design. In the Framework for Continueous Professional Development programme the Library Association leaves the details to the individual in training and the supervisor.

In addition to publications of various kinds both organisations produce tools which can help with their members' professional development. The Framework for Continuing Professional Development and the Turning Points Toolkit, designed by the LA, are both intended primarily for the individual. The Industry Structure Model, designed by the British Computer Society, is meant primarily for employers.

Neither of them has achieved the power of closure: the right to practice is not limited to chartered members of these organisations.

Both see the life-long education of its members as being at the heart of their professionalism.

References

[1] Savage, Ernest A. A librarian's memoirs : portraits and reflections. London: Grafton, 1952. p.136
[2] Goode William J. The theoretical limits of professionalization. In Etzioni Amitai. The semi-professions and their organization. NY, London: The Free Press, 1969. Ch.6.
[3] Millerson G. The qualifying associations: a study in professionalization. London: Routledge, 1964. p.5.
[4] Millerson Op.cit. p.10.
[5] Roberts Norman & Konn Tania. Librarians and professional status: continuing professional development and academic libraries. London: L.A., 1991 ISBN 0-85157-452-1 p.xiii.
[6] Green Samuel S. The desirableness of establishing personal intercourse and relations between librarians and readers in popular libraries: a paper read at the Conference of Librarians held in Philadelphia October 4th, 5th & 6th 1876. Worcester: The Press of Charles Hamilton, 1876. p.3.
[7] Green Op.cit. p.13.
[8] Millerson Op.cit. p.126
[9] Davey J.S. The Role of correspondence courses in education for librarianship. In Library education today: report of the national conference held at Chaucer House in May 1957. London: L.A.L&H.C.B., 1957. p.12-17
[10] Ward, Patricia Layxzell ed. The professional development of the librarian and information worker. London: Aslib, 1980. (Aslib Reader Series vol.3) ISBN 085142 1369
[11] Saunders, Wilfred L. Towards a unified professional organisation for library and information science and services: a personal view. London: LA, 1989 (Viewpoints in LIS; no.3)
[12] Saunders Op.cit. p.58
[13] The Institute of Information Scientists & The Library Association. Our professional future: revised proposals for a new organisation for the library and information profession. London: IIS & LA, August 1999.
[14] Our professional future Op.cit p.7.
[15] Stone E.W. Toward a learning community. In Asp W.G. et al. Continuing education for the library information professions, !!!!, 1985. p.63
[16] Farmer Jane & Campbell Fiona. Continuing professional development and career success: is there a causal relationship? BL Reserach & Innovation Centre, 1998. (BL Research & Innovation Report 112) ISBN 0-7123-97183.
[17] Clegg Helen. Attitudes to continuing professional development: a survey of members of the Institute of Information Scientists. M.A. Loughborough, 1988 p.24
[18] Barta B.Z. et al.
eds. Professional development of information technology professionals: Proceedings of the IFIP WG3.4 Working Conference on Professional Development of Information Technology Professionals Singapore 13-17 July 1992. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1992. ISBN 0444 89765 8 p.244
[19] Farmer Op.cit. p.xiii
[20] Barta Op. cit. p.vi
[21] Barta Op. cit. p.vi
[22] Barta Op. cit. p.vi
[23] Levy Philippa. An example of internet-based continuing professional development: perspectives on course design and participation. Education for Information vol.17. 1999 p.45-58
[24] Levy Op.cit. p.55
[25] Roberts Op.cit. p.38
[26] Leach Kathryn et al.
The use of information networking for continuing professional development. BL Reserach & Development Department, 1996. (BL Research & Development Report 6229)
[27] Farmer Op.cit. p.xi
[28] Asociateship regulations and notes of guidance. London: The Library Association, 1997.
[29] Nankivell Clare. See your career grow with a mentor. Library and Information Appointments. vol.3,no.6,10 March 2000,p.1-2
[30] Atton C. The professional development report: a writer's guide. Assistant Librarian vol.87,no.6, June 1994, p.94-5; vol87,no.8, Sept 1994, p.118-9.
[31] The British Computer Society. Annual report and summary accounts 1998/99. London:British Computer Society, 1999.